As the UK works toward its net zero ambitions, attention is increasingly turning offshore, where geological formations under the sea floor may hold the key to long-term carbon dioxide (COâ‚‚) storage. 

Carbon capture and storage (CCS) encompasses a range of technologies designed to significantly reduce emissions from large industrial sources such as steelworks, cement plants and thermal power stations. COâ‚‚ is captured at source, transported and then injected into suitable rock formations deep beneath the surface, typically at depths of over 800 m. Geologists at BGS are working to better understand the subsurface geology of the Central North Sea and its suitability for storing COâ‚‚ captured from major industrial sources. This work could release one of the UK’s largest, yet least-developed, carbon storage resources and underpin the in CCS projects.

Despite accounting for approximately 60 per cent of the UK’s total estimated COâ‚‚ storage capacity, the Central North Sea remains under-represented and highlights a major opportunity for the Government’s clean energy growth agenda. 

A nation rich in storage potential 

Deploying CCS at scale is a key pillar of the UK Government’s . Current ambitions are to store at least 50 million tonnes of COâ‚‚ per year by 2030, rising to as much as 170 million tonnes annually by 2050. 

The UK is exceptionally well positioned for offshore COâ‚‚ storage. Estimates suggest that total theoretical storage capacity exceeds 70 billion tonnes. The North Sea Transition Authority (NSTA), which regulates offshore COâ‚‚ storage, launched its first competitive licensing round in 2022 and followed this with a second round announced in December 2025. 

These licences allow operators to explore and appraise potential storage sites as a precursor to applying for permits that enable COâ‚‚ injection. Due to favourable geology and proximity to onshore emission hubs, most licences to date have been located in the Southern North Sea, with additional clusters in Liverpool Bay, Morecambe Bay and the Northern North Sea. However, the region with most storage potential lies elsewhere.

The drive to map this untapped potential

The enormous, currently untapped potential beneath the Central North Sea lies in extensive sandstone formations in the region. Multiple sequences of stacked Palaeogene sandstone units represent a vast potential COâ‚‚ storage resource, with more than 10 billion tonnes of theoretical capacity (approximately one quarter of the basin’s total regional storage capacity). These sandstones were deposited between 40 and 65 million years ago in deep-water marine fan systems. The complex stacked and interdigitated nature of these sandstone bodies raises important geological questions that must be resolved before large-scale storage can proceed.

Key considerations include: 

• the degree of connectivity between sandstone units, which has a bearing on pressure during CO₂ injection
• balance between pressure dissipation and pressure interference between neighbouring storage sites, which affects storage capacity
• the effectiveness of the vital sealing layers above and between the sandstone formations, which might be prone to disruption by various geological phenomena
• legacy oil and gas wells, which could act as pathways for CO₂ to escape if not properly assessed

With relatively few licences currently issued in the Central North Sea, robust pre-competitive geological understanding is essential to realise the region’s storage potential. BGS geologists have therefore begun a comprehensive programme to better understand the Palaeogene storage system. This work will also help to address regulatory and operational challenges, particularly those related to pressure effects and interactions between disparate storage projects.

John Williams, senior geoscientist at BGS.

Decades of oil and gas exploration have generated a wealth of subsurface data, including drill core that is curated in BGS’s National Geological Repository. Drilling core is expensive, costing as much as £20 to 30 million for a single offshore borehole, so the ability to access pre-drilled material is invaluable, both in terms of avoided drilling costs and time saved. Alongside this archived material, BGS has also developed an integrated subsurface database and interpretations comprising existing 3D seismic and well data, and a stratigraphical framework to ensure accurate regional interpretation.

From the late 1990s to the early 2000s, BGS undertook pioneering work to evaluate the potential to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by storing COâ‚‚ in rocks offshore UK, to help mitigate climate change and develop clean energy. This early work focused on the geological storage opportunities in the Southern North Sea and East Irish Sea regions.

Potential storage sites in these regions, first identified by BGS, are among the first to be licensed and permitted by the NSTA for COâ‚‚ storage. For the UK to reach its ambition of storing 170 million tonnes of COâ‚‚ a year by 2050, it will need to look beyond the current well-appraised geographical areas.

The stacked sandstones of the Central North Sea are relatively under-studied, with huge CO₂ storage potential. Our ambition is to assess and characterise the potential geological storage system in this region to enable future CO₂ storage in the UK, fast-tracking the nation’s CCS industry.

Michelle Bentham, chief scientist for decarbonisation and resource management at BGS.

BGS is seeking to establish partnerships to help unlock this nationally significant CO₂ storage resource, which could play a crucial role in the UK’s transition to a low-carbon future. Interested parties should contact John Williams via enquiries@bgs.ac.uk

The UK’s geological storage resource is amongst the largest in Europe and is critical to the country achieving net zero by 2030. Funding has been awarded by the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council for a two-year project, ‘Maximising the UK geological storage resource’ or MaxStoreUK. The project is led by BGS with collaborators from the Industrial Ä¢¹½ÊÓƵÍøÕ¾ Research and Innovation Centre (IDRIC) and researchers at Heriot-Watt University and The University of Manchester. The findings will inform investment decisions and policy development and maximise the use of the subsurface in the UK to reach net zero.

MaxStoreUK will build on subsurface hydrogen and carbon storage research investigations previously completed as part of the IDRIC research programme. The objectives of the new project are to:

• share tailored information on regional UK geological carbon dioxide (CO₂)and hydrogen storage opportunities with industry clusters and other key stakeholders
• present a UK hydrogen storage briefing to enable cross-sector policy collaboration
• increase understanding of CO₂ storage in a UK Central North Sea frontier area of extensive strata with multiple prospective storage sites
• advise on solutions to specific risks for UK hydrogen storage with operators and regulators that are addressed by our modelling and experimental data

We are delighted to have been awarded funding and begin the two-year project. We will build on existing engagement with stakeholders to unlock the full potential of the UK’s subsurface resource to meet the UK’s net zero targets and drive economic growth.

Dr Maxine Akhurst, principal geologist at BGS and project leader.

This project represents an exciting initiative to build further on the significant impact of IDRIC’s five-year multi-disciplinary research programme and our strong partnership with BGS. We look forward to continuing this valued collaboration, advancing progress and sharing knowledge in geological storage, which will accelerate the journey of our industrial heartlands towards a sustainable low-carbon future

Prof Mercedes Maroto-Valer, IDRIC Director.

In 2023, BGS entered into a data-sharing partnership with to enhance understanding of the seabed and shallow subsurface conditions across the United Kingdom continental shelf . The partnership granted BGS access to Ossian’s extensive survey data, with the development set to become one of the world’s largest floating wind farms.

In total the lease area covers 858 km² and is located 84 km off Scotland’s east coast. Once glaciated and now submerged at approximately 72 m depth, the site offers a unique opportunity to investigate offshore stratigraphy and geomorphology in a region undergoing rapid environmental and industrial transformation. It also allows researchers to compare findings to Ossian’s parent company ’ other projects in the Firth of Forth: and .

As part of the project, BGS scientists hosted a dedicated workshop attended by members of the Ossian project team, which included a mini-field trip day in Midlothian close to the BGS office in Edinburgh. The field trip allowed the project teams to explore similarities to geological features found onshore and discuss the broader implications for interpreting offshore survey data. By examining glacial deposits, meltwater channels and till sequences in a terrestrial setting, geoscientists can refine offshore geological models and reduce uncertainty in infrastructure design.

A key example observed during the field trip was the heterogeneity of the sediments across relatively small areas, with notable variations in grain size, composition and depositional structure. These complexities mirror the variability of ground conditions found offshore and highlight the importance of detailed site characterisation when planning and constructing marine infrastructure.

To help contextualise the offshore data, the field trip explored several key geological sites in Midlothian, each offering valuable insights into glacial processes and sedimentary environments similar to those observed beneath the sea.

Auchencorth Moss: Black Burn exposure (Local Geodiversity Site)

Auchencorth Moss is an extensive, peat-covered plateau dissected by small streams and drainage channels. The , where a tributary joins the River North Esk near Penicuik, features an exposure of three distinct glacial tills with varying physical characteristics and compositions. Though partially obscured by slope wash and vegetation, the upper sections remain visible and accessible for study. The exposure reveals how glacial processes deposited and reworked sediments, which act as a useful analogue for interpreting stratified units offshore.

Carlops meltwater channel

There is a classic example of a subglacial meltwater channel systems at , a Geological Conservation Review Site and partially a Site of Special Scientific Interest (SSSI).

The bedrock-cut channels at Carlops exhibit braided forms, rock islands and chute features. These geomorphological structures help explain the beneath ice sheets, which are also evident in offshore channel features. The site also provides a good opportunity to emphasise the scale of channel features, helping to conceptualise the variability of the offshore landscape.

Hewan Bank

, an SSSI located close to Roslin Glen, presents a textbook sequence of two tills overlain by sands and gravels. The locality has been used to construct the regional glacial stratigraphy for the Edinburgh and Lothians area.

The debate over whether these represent separate glaciations or complex depositional environments mirrors the interpretive challenges faced offshore, where seismic and core data must be carefully analysed to distinguish between similar units. The wider Roslin Glen area, known for its meltwater gorge and incised meanders, also illustrates the erosional power of glacial meltwater and the formation of geomorphological features that can be traced in offshore bathymetry and sediment records.

Collaboration

The collaboration between Ossian, SSE Renewables and BGS provides important new data that is being used to update baseline geological models for the Central North Sea and the Firth of Forth. These feed into BGS’s publicly available offshore maps and datasets, which support a wide range of users including developers, regulators, researchers and marine planners. Integrating data from offshore wind farms such as Ossian with existing geological frameworks will help to guide future offshore developments and promote the sustainable use of marine resources.

This initiative also builds on BGS’s longstanding relationship with Ossian joint venture partner SSE Renewables and highlights the value of sustained collaboration in delivering large-scale renewable energy projects. The Ossian floating wind farm, which is a joint venture between SSE Renewables, and (CIP), is set to deliver up to 3.6 GW of renewable energy, enough to power 6 million homes and offset up to 7.5 million tonnes of carbon emissions, marking a significant step forward in the UK’s journey to net zero.

About the author

Catriona Macdonald
Margaret Stewart

Knapton H2 Storage is a consortium led by gas distributor Northern Gas Networks and partnered with BGS, Centrica Energy Storage, Third Energy Onshore and the University of Edinburgh. The consortium has been awarded ‘Discovery’ funding by Ofgem’s Strategic Innovation Fund (SIF) to undertake a new study to evaluate geological storage potential in the Knapton area, North Yorkshire. The Ofgem SIF funding is designed to drive innovation in energy networks as part of the ‘Revenue = incentives + innovation + outputs’ (RIIO-2) price control for gas and electricity networks.

Energy storage and backup power will become increasingly important as the UK increases the amount of renewable energy supplying electricity. This study is the first of its kind in the region and will undertake a feasibility assessment of the area’s geology to host energy storage technologies, allowing for the decarbonisation of adjacent gas-fired peaking power plants (those that only run when there is high demand) such as that at Knapton.

The Knapton, Vale of Pickering and North Yorkshire area hosts a fantastic diversity of geology that may be used for storing hydrogen. The region contains numerous depleted hydrocarbon reservoirs that may have potential for repurposing, alongside other porous rock aquifers, salt deposits and rocks that may support lined rock shafts. The study will generate an understanding of what is possible for hydrogen storage at scale in the local area, supporting the area’s local economy and the UK’s energy security.

The natural geology of the area around Knapton will play an important role in supporting the use of hydrogen in the region. Storing hydrogen gives flexibility to the energy system, allowing excess hydrogen to be stored for use during periods when demand exceeds supply. In this project, BGS will build on its extensive laboratory and mapping programmes to help identify areas of the underground geology that may represent future exploration targets for hydrogen storage in bedrock.

Edward Hough, research lead in underground energy storage at BGS.

As more renewables come online, energy storage will be critical to UK energy security and to clean power. Understanding the full potential for storing hydrogen at scale through Knapton H2 Storage will give us key insights into how we can deliver technologies to provide clean resilience on the days where the sun doesn’t shine and the wind doesn’t blow.

Keith Owen, head of energy futures at Northern Gas Networks.

Centrica’s Knapton site is being redeveloped as a multi-vector energy hub for solar generation, green hydrogen production and battery storage. But without dedicated hydrogen storage, its ability to support seasonal balancing, system resilience and flexible dispatch (H2P) will be fundamentally constrained. This project will advance integration readiness at Knapton and commercial readiness of storage technologies, whilst unlocking a replicable model for medium- to large-scale hydrogen storage to support H2P roll-out and network resilience.

Chris McClane, energy transition interface manager at Centrica.

Geothermal technologies, which use heat from the ground, have the potential to decarbonise heating and cooling, playing a role in the energy transition to net zero emissions in the UK. The ability to identify which parts of the subsurface have the necessary conditions to realise this potential is an important first step.

BGS has launched the , which provides national- to local-scale information on geothermal potential across shallow and deep technology options. It allows users to explore and assess the geothermal potential of an area and make more informed decisions. The platform draws together diverse information and synthesises it to deliver the information needed by heat policy, heat networks, national zoning model and planning specialists. The platform can be used by regulators, developers and researchers.

Included in the platform is an overview of geothermal energy potential for four geothermal technologies (Great Britain coverage):

• shallow, vertical closed-loop with ground-source heat pump
• shallow open-loop with ground-source heat pump
• deep, hot sedimentary aquifers (hydrothermal)
• deep, engineered geothermal systems in granites (petrothermal)

For instance, the platform highlights that closed-loop systems can technically be deployed almost anywhere across Great Britain (local planning and regulatory constraints apply). Up to 55 per cent of the population has the potential to extract up to 15 000 kWh of thermal energy (the typical annual energy of a gas boiler), via a single, 150 m-deep, closed-loop system.

Towns, cities and industrial sites can be assessed for the potential to retrofit geothermal technology and new development zones can be quickly assessed for strategic use of geothermal energy from the start of the development or planning cycle. For example, planned development for the Liverpool–Manchester–Leeds–Sheffield growth corridor can take advantage of multiple geothermal energy technologies.

The openly available platform features a user-friendly map explorer and a data access page that also enables you to view more detailed geoscientific information from several organisations, including BGS, the Mining Remediation Authority, environmental agencies, the North Sea Transition Authority and the UK Onshore Geophysical Library.

For the first time, the UK Geothermal Platform makes a large volume of national-scale geothermal data and information available and digitally accessible.

It supports a wide range of users in understanding at high level the potential for a range of geothermal energy options, supporting decarbonisation of heating and energy security.

Dr Alison Monaghan, head of geothermal at BGS.

The first release of the UK Geothermal Platform has been funded by the UK Government’s Department for Energy Security and Net Zero (DESNZ) through the Net Zero Innovation Portfolio. It is delivered and maintained by BGS.

BGS hosted an Indian delegation of experts from 14 to 18 July as they deepen their understanding of the UK’s carbon capture and storage (CCS) landscape, with the aim of furthering India’s potential use of the technology. The visit resulted from a new UK/India partnership, the Centre of Innovation in Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage.

Carbon capture, utilisation and storage (CCUS) includes a suite of technologies that aim to reduce atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions associated with large industrial sources such as steel works, cement plants and other energy-intensive industries. India is currently working on a new policy framework for CCS within the country, which will assist in India’s goal of becoming net zero by 2070.

The Indian group visited to explore research outcomes in CO₂ storage at BGS and to further opportunities for knowledge exchange between research groups in the UK and India. It also provided an opportunity for the team to learn about key policy and regulatory approaches in the UK that could be applied in India.

It’s been highly exciting and insightful to visit and interact with the premier groups involved in CO₂ storage, capture and utilisation research at BGS, Heriot-Watt University and Imperial College during this deep dive visit by the Indian delegation, organised by the British High Commission. I am highly impressed with the excellent and innovative research work being done at BGS in the area of CO₂ storage research.

I really appreciate and thank BGS for the excellent coordination and for organising the meetings for the delegation across UK to explore the possibility of collaborations under the Indo-UK Net Zero Innovation Partnership.

Dr Neelima Alam, Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India

The delegation visited BGS’s Edinburgh office before being taken on a tour of Heriot-Watt University’s Research Centre for Carbon Solutions. Following this, the group took in BGS’s headquarters in Keyworth, Nottinghamshire, before travelling to London for meetings with Imperial College London, the Carbon Capture and Storage Association and the Department for Energy Security and Net Zero, and concluded with a visit to BP to learn about the Northern Endurance Partnership.

Building on our longstanding collaboration with research groups in India, it is our privilege to host the delegation and give them an opportunity to both understand our research capability and hear about the UK’s approach to implementing CCS. This visit marks the start of our new joint centre, a very exciting opportunity to deepen our collaboration and share knowledge on key aspects of CO₂ storage.

Dr Jonathan Pearce, head of CO₂ storage research, BGS.

The trip was organised by the UK/India Centre of Innovation in Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage, which is co-led by the CO₂ storage team at BGS and the National Centre of Excellence in Carbon Capture, Utilisation and Storage (NCoE-CCUS) at the Indian Institute of Technology Bombay. It was sponsored by the British High Commission in Delhi. The delegation was led by Dr Neelima Alam of the Deptartment of Science and Technology in the Government of India.

Decision makers across the UK are today considering new research that reveals areas of the subsurface with outstanding geological potential to boost economic growth. They will help unlock an estimated and energy-transition technologies. The findings identify eight ‘geological super regions’. These are the areas with a subsurface composition that is ‘just right’ to potentially host multiple energy-transition technologies, which will help deliver the UK’s net zero aspirations as presented in the Government’s Clean Power Action Plan.

Whilst other parts of the UK benefit from geology well suited to certain net zero technologies, such as shallow geothermal installations or critical minerals occurrences, these geological super regions contain subsurface formations and conditions that are favourable to multiple different technologies within a relatively small area. The geological super regions that could play a pivotal role in the application of sustainable energy production and decarbonisation are:

• Northern Ireland
• the Scottish Central Belt
• north-east England
• north-west England
• the South Yorkshire and Humber region
• the East Midlands and East Anglia
• South Wales
• south-west England

The subsurface has a vital role to play in the energy transition, acting as an enabler and helping deliver economic growth by providing:

• a sustainable heat source for geothermal energy
• geological formations for secure storage of energy and carbon dioxide (CO₂)
• rocks containing important resources for mineral extraction
• suitable geological foundation conditions for onshore and offshore wind power infrastructure projects

The benefits of a stronger renewable sector for UK residents could include improved access to secure, affordable, sustainable energy and subsurface raw materials, contributing to economic prosperity and net zero targets for the UK.

The findings provide crucial insights for decision makers looking to target further research and maximise return on investment in the pursuit of a reliable and sustainable energy future for the UK. Whilst these eight regions display many of the right geological ingredients, further investigation will be required to fully establish each region’s true potential, ensure safe deployment of each technology, and understand any environmental impact.

The data underpinning this research has been shaped by our current understanding of the subsurface. In some cases, this data is weighted towards existing project development and there is also a correlation with UK industrial clusters. A few parts of the country, such as the north of Scotland and parts of Wales, have been less extensively surveyed and further research is required in order to fully assess their potential.

Matching subsurface technologies and favourable geological conditions is essential for identifying regions with opportunities for investment, providing a roadmap for the UK to reach net zero emissions and ensuring a reliable and sustainable clean energy future. These findings provide a clear and deployable roadmap for decision makers to direct resources to the areas where they can deliver the greatest impact and support the through renewable energy by 2030.

Much of the UK’s subsurface can support at least one of the energy-transition technologies assessed, but what makes these geological super regions stand out is their versatility and potential to host multiple net zero technologies.

Work still lies ahead to accurately map these subsurface regions and BGS is uniquely positioned to undertake such investigations due to our national remit, recognised geological expertise and national geological data holdings.

Michelle Bentham, BGS Chief Scientist for decarbonisation and resource management.

Geology is a complex and diverse natural resource. Its variable characteristics have the potential to support multiple net zero technologies. Strategic planning and careful management will be vital to ensure safe and secure deployment, especially in locations where technologies may co-exist, whilst also protecting the surrounding environment for future generations.

Regional summaries and maps

Distribution maps by energy transition technology

Notes to editors